Prototype Theory essays

Prototype Theory essays The "prototype theory" was proposed by Rosch (1978), who suggested that when people categorize objects they match them against "the prototype", i.e. an "ideal exemplar", which contains the most representative features inside the category. Objects that do not share all the characteristics of the prototype are still members of the category but not prototypical ones. She argued that prototypes represent a "basic level of categorization", e.g. "chair", as opposed to a "superordinate", e.g. "furniture" and a "subordinate" level, e.g. "kitchen chair". The prototype theory has been particularly fruitful in providing several researchers with a convenient explanation of some phenomena in studies of vocabulary acquisition and teaching, mental lexicon, as well as in studies of cognitive linguistics and linguistic data. Rosch's concept of prototype served Griffiths (1986) to illustrate "the nature of the mental representations children have for their nominals" (p. 295). He focuses on dissimilarities between the language systems of a child and an adult, paying special attention to the so-called "overextension", i.e. covering many meanings with one word only. It is exemplified by presenting the situations in which a little girl, R., applied the word "shoe" to denote "brown beetle", "doll's arm", "sock", "feet", "shoe". The author's explanation of this phenomenon is as follows: My version of prototypes theory ... would attribute to R's mind something like videotape recordings of one or more shoe-involving episodes from her life ... she compared what she was currently experiencing with episodes in her mental "video" library and found that current input was closer to something in the shoe collection than to anything else. (p. 298) The similarity was probably a matter of visual resemblance (colour of the beetle, shape of the sock and feet) and action (arm being fitted to a body). Just like Griffiths, Cook (1991) is also concerned with vocab...

Americas Prison Population Professor Ramos Blog

Americas Prison Population The American criminal justice system holds almost 2.3 million people in 1,719 state prisons, 102 federal prisons, 1,852 juvenile correctional facilities and 3,163 local jails (Wagner and Sawyer). America is by far the leader in people incarcerated into prison systems. There are another 840,000 people on parole and a staggering 3.7 million people on probation (Wagner and Sawyer). People look to America as the land of the free, yet we have so many of our citizens incarcerated and we need to look to the possibilities of why this is. We can start by looking into the growth of juvenile crimes and the punishments behind them. â€Å"The divergence of trends of juvenile and adult violent crime in the last decade represents a potentially alarming development in the fight against crime. The rate at which juveniles were arrested for violent crime rose 79 percent between 1978 and 1993, almost three times the increase over that time period for adults (Levitt 1156).† Each state has different systems when dealing with juvenile and adult criminals but the age majority at which an individual may be tried at an adult court varies between 16 and 19 years of age. So, depending on the crime, a 16 year old teenager may be tried as an adult. â€Å"There are sharp changes in crime rates associated with the transition from the juvenile to the adult court. In the year following the attainment of the age of majority, states that punish adults particularly harshly relative to juveniles see violent crime rates fall by almost 25 p ercent and property crime 10-15 percent relative to states in which adult punishment are relatively lenient (Levitt 1181).† This brings us to another factor we must look at when talking about over population in our prison systems. Are laws being created for more severe prison sentences? â€Å"One of the most significant trends in criminal justice is the growing emphasis on imprisonment. Legislators have continuously responded to constituent fears by establishing longer sentences or mandatory minimum sentences for wide varieties of crimes and criminals. As a result, United States prison populations have increased nearly 400% in the twenty-five years from 1968 to 1993 (Marvell 696).† According to Michael Tonry the Director of the Institute of Criminology at Cambridge University, â€Å"The large majorities often express the view that sentencing is too lenient, and that people demand that criminal punishment be made tougher. On this account, elected officials have merely respected the public will, and imprisonment rates have risen as a result (420).† In other terms, we look to punish criminals s everely out of fear in the hopes that the criminal doesn’t repeat any crimes anytime soon. But maybe we’re right. Overall, 67.8% of the 404,638 state prisoners released in 2005 in 30 states were arrested within 3 years of release, and 76.6% were arrested within 5 years of release (Durose et al. 1). Over three quarters of the prisoners released in 2005 in 30 states had been re-incarcerated back into our prison systems adding on top of all the new juvenile crimes being tried as adults. The statics show within 5 years of release, 84.1% of inmates who were age 24 or younger at release were arrested, compared to 78.6% of inmates 25 to 39 and 69.2% of those age 40 or older (Durose et al. 1). Most inmates are heading right back into prison within 5 years of their release and so we need to look to factors that might impact this. â€Å"Among the 404,638 prisoners released in 30 states in 2005, 31.8% were in prison for a drug offense, 29.8% for a property offense, 25.7% for a violent offense, and 12.7% for a public order offense (Durose et al. 1).† It isn’t as simple to think all your problems will go away once you’re released from prison. You now have a criminal background which makes it much tougher to find jobs and pass background checks. It is these statistics that encourage repeat offenders such as drug dealers and thieves to go right back into their old habits. Some just looking to it as a means of survival knowing their odds of being arrested again were against them. â€Å"Drug arrests give residents of over-policed communities criminal records, which then reduce employment prospects and increase the likelihood of longer sentences for any future offenses (Wagner and Sawyer)†. It is not only you commit the crime you do the time. It is if you re-commit the crime you are now doi ng longer time. Just adding on to longer prison sentences in already over populated prison system. â€Å"More than 90 percent of prisoners are men, incarceration rates for blacks are about eight times higher than those for whites, and prison inmates average less than 12 years of completed schooling† (Petit and Western 151). Over the years research shows that prisons are filled not only with uneducated inmates but that most prisons are predominantly filled with black males. We can look at poor education in low income areas as a cause and effect and this can point towards why there is an increase in juvenile crimes. Future politicians, Police officers, Correctional officers, Parole officers, Judges, Lawyers are just some of the many these over populated prison systems impact. We keep seeing growth in prisons and less in schools. We have more criminals incarcerated than any other country in the world and we don’t even hold the world’s largest population. We need to look at crimes and their punishments and install proper sentences and infrastructures to help rehabilitate prison inmates while being incarcerated and upon release. We need to target juvenile crimes at the source and figure punishments accordingly instead of preparing juveniles for prison. We must not keep building prisons to fill the beds, America must look deeper into its prison policies and laws and develop new methods to keep its citizens out of jails and committing repeat offenses. Durose, Mathew et al. â€Å"Recidivism of Prisoners Released in 30 States in 2005: Patterns from 2005 to 2010†. Bureau of Justice Statistics. April 2014. NCJ 244205. Pp. 1-30. Levitt, Steven, â€Å"Juvenile Crime and Punishment†. The Journal of Political Economy. Vol. 106, Issue 6, December 1998. Pp 1156-1185. JSTOR. http://pricetheory.uchicago.edu/levitt/Papers/LevittJuvenileCrimePunishment1998.pdf Marvell, Thomas B. â€Å"Sentencing Guidelines and Prison Population Growth.† The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. 1973, vol. 85, no. 3, 1995, pp. 696–709. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1144046. Petit, Becky and Western Bruce. â€Å"Mass Imprisonment and the Life Course: Race and Class Inequality in U.S. Incarceration†. American Sociological Association. Vol. 69, No. 2 April 2004, pp. 151-169. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/3593082 Tonry, Michael. â€Å"Why Are U.S. Incarceration Rates So High?† Crime Delinquency, Vol. 45, No. 4, October 1999. Pp. 419-437. https://uakron.edu/dotAsset/1662091.pdf Wagner, Peter and Sawyer, Wendy. â€Å"Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2018†. Prison Policy Initiative. March 2018. https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/pie2018.html Eric Kazos English 010 3pm

About physical therapy Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

About physical therapy - Personal Statement Example My father gave me a simple reply, â€Å"Because they need it.† My father was never a man of many words so I knew that I needed to seek the answer to my question from my cousin. His reply was to set the career path that I would eventually follow. He explained to me that the people in the clinic had all been physically injured either by playing sports, a work accident, or just a stroke of bad luck. Their injury damaged their body physically so they could not move like a normal person would. Pointing out the others who had their arms in slings or casts, and some people with amputated arms, he told me that â€Å"They all need help in learning how to move like a normal person. That is what I help them with.† Since we had time to spare before having to leave, I intently watched my cousin do his job. Trying to understand what exactly it was that he was trying to do for these people. When I asked him what he called what he was doing to them, he responded â€Å"Physical therapy†. I told myself that I would remember those two words because I wanted to be like my cousin when I grew up. So while I spent my time being a voracious reader, I made sure to read as many books as i could about the foundation of a physical therapists career aside from many other book genres that I liked to read. I made sure to spend as much free time as I could throughout my high school years observing my cousin in his workplace. Learning as much as I could and asking as many questions that I could about what he was doing to the patients. I will always be grateful to him for never tiring of answering the thousand and one questions that I kept asking him. I became such a regular fixture at his clinic that even the patients already knew me by name and some even considered me a friend already. When I was not observing at the physical therapy clinic, I spent whatever time I could doing volunteer work for the needy and less fortunate in my city. One of the places that I volunteered at

Astronomy assignment 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Astronomy assignment 2 - Essay Example 1. Mass transfer or overflow – a process that could have occurred in a close binary system where one high-mass star beginning the end of its life expands and sheds off its outer gas to the other, originally a low-mass star, as a result of the latter’s gravitational pull. The originally low-mass star grows in size and becomes a high-mass star (Heggie & Hut 2003). Thus, Blue Stragglers have live longer than the usual high-mass star. 2. Collision theory – Collision could occur between single-binary or binary-binary stars encounters in a cluster which will produce a single body which will have a mass twice or more than that of the turn-off mass (Heggie & Hut2003. Bennett, Jeffrey and Megan Donahue, Nicholas Schneider and Mark Voit. The Cosmic Perspective, Fifth Edition. http://www.coursesmart.com/mycoursesmart?page=0&__myxmlid=9780321542632#X2ludGVybmFsX0Jvb2tJbmZvQWpheFBhbmVsP3BhZ2U9JnhtbGlkPTk3ODAzMjE1NDI2MzI= , pp 536, 566,

Assessments for Early Childhood Programs Essay Example for Free

Assessments for Early Childhood Programs Essay William J. Wilson once said, â€Å"The person who scored well on an SAT will not necessarily be the best doctor or the best lawyer or the best businessman. These tests do not measure character, leadership, creativity, or perseverance†. Why do we test students? What is the purpose of assessments? Do these tests and assessments benefit the students? These are questions educators have been asking for years. It is impossible for one to determine a child’s academic abilities based solely on a test. Yet there still needs to be some form of assessments performed in order to evaluate the academic level each student has reached. But how much assessing is too much? How heavily do educators rely on the results of these assessments? The main issues, when it comes to assessing early childhood students, are the consequences of the assessment results and how they affect the child. According to The National Academies of Sciences, there are two key principles that support the success of assessment. The first is that the purpose of an assessment should be a guide for assessment decisions. â€Å"The purpose for any assessment must be determined and clearly communicated to all stake- holders before the assessment is designed or implemented. Most important, assessment designed for programs should not be used to assess individual children. Because different purposes require different kinds of assessments, the purpose should drive assessment design and implementation decisions† (The National Academies of Sciences, 2008). The second principle is that any assessment performed should be completed in a â€Å"coherent system of health, educational, and family support services that promote optimal development for all children. Assessment should be an integral part of a coherent system of early childhood care and education that includes a range of services and resources† (The National Academies of Sciences, 2008). These two principles explain the main purpose of why assessing is important and how assessments should be conducted. After having an understanding of the purpose of assessments, why is it so important to begin evaluations at such a young age? What is the purpose of evaluating infants and toddlers? Author Sue Wortham explains evaluating toddlers and infants determine whether the child is developing normally or if they show any signs of delay and need assistance. All in all, the main purpose of assessment is to benefit the child (Wortham, p. 32). The NAEYC believes that during a child’s early years, evaluating and assessing their development should be the primary focus. They want to study how young children grown and learn. All the â€Å"results of assessment are used to inform the planning and implementation of experiences, to communicate with the child’s family, and to evaluate and improve teachers’ and program’s effectiveness† (Wortham, p.34). Teachers also use assessment results to in order to plan their curriculum accordingly. So exactly do assessments search for? Assessments look not only for what the child is already capable of doing independently but also what they can do with the help of a teacher or another student (Wortham, p. 35). So how are they assessed exactly? There are many different assessments given to children across the U. S. everyday. These may be administered orally or as written works, such as questionnaires, surveys, or tests. These may include: standardized tests, observations, checklists, rating scales, rubrics, interviews, or portfolios. Each of these serve a different purpose in order to give different pieces of information needed to evaluate the child in question. Standardized tests, though many disagree with them, are meant to measure individual characteristics. Observations, on the other hand, are one of the most effective ways to measure students’ characteristics. When children are young, it can be hard at times to determine if there are any developmental delays (Wortham, p. 39). Developmental checklists, or scopes, are mainly used at all levels of education. These checklists are lists of the learning objectives that have been established by the teacher in order to keep track of their learning and development. Items on a checklist are rated with a negative or positive response from the teacher. Rating scales, unlike checklists, provide measurement on a continuum and are used when a collection of criteria is needed to attain specific information. Another form of assessment teachers commonly use is Rubrics. Rubrics were created to â€Å"evaluate authentic and performance assessments† (Wortham, p. 41). Rubrics, like rating scales, have a range of criteria that must be met. However, unlike rating scales, rubrics can be used to not only determine the quality of performance required, but are also used to assign grades. Rubrics make it easy for students to understand what is expected and is makes it easier for teachers to grade assignments. The final types of assessments that are most frequently used are performance and portfolio assessments. These evaluations might be administered through interviews given directly by the teacher in order to understand the child’s thinking and understanding (Wortham, p. 41). Teachers may present these evaluations through directed assignments, activities, or games. The performance results are typically kept in a student or teacher portfolio. These portfolios contain samples of student’s work and are used as a sort of progress report card. Keeping detailed reports of student’s work in the portfolios help teachers keep track of their student’s progress and help determine which areas of learning are lacking attention (Wortham, p. 41). Overall, according to Wortham, these tests, whether administered to an individual child or a group of students, are meant to determine a student’s â€Å"abilities, achievements, aptitudes, interests, attitudes, values, and personality characteristics† (Wortham, p.39). Now having an understanding of the different types of assessments used to evaluate students and the purpose, let us turn to the negative and positive effects of these evaluations. It is crucial for educators to administer tests and evaluations carefully, because it they are poorly articulated, it can lead to decisions that are unfair or unclear, and they may do harm to programs, teachers, and, most importantly, children (Snow, C. E. Van Hemel, S. B. , p. 341-342). Evaluations and assessments are not meant to punish a child, and therefore, should never be overseen lightly. It is important that the information gathered outweighs any negative effects. Editors of Early Childhood Assessment: Why, What, and How, Catherine E. Snow and Susan B. Van Hemel, explain that â€Å"although the same measure may be used for more than one purpose, prior consideration of all potential purposes is essential, as is careful analysis of the actual content of the assessment instrument. Direct examination of the assessment items is important because the title of a measure does not always reflect the content† (Snow, C. E. Van Hemel, S. B. , p. 346). So what are some negative effects? Negative consequences of assessment findings may include program de-funding, closing a center, firing a teacher, mislabeling a child, or a reduction in program resources (The National Academies of Sciences, 2008). These effects, such as mislabeling a student, can follow students for the rest of their education career. Once a child is entered into a program, it can be difficult at time for teachers to look past that label. Children all develop at different his or her own pace. No one child will develop and learn the same way as another child. They all grow up and develop at different stages. Yet educational theorists have been able to observed and gather enough information to conclude that children, if divided in age groups, do tend to follow a certain development pattern. The problem is, it is hard to determine which children are the outliers in these results without carefully administering proper assessments. Assessments are not used to necessarily judge student or punish them. Their main purpose is to help students, teachers, and parents. So what are some positive effects of assessment and evaluations? Students that benefit from assessments and evaluations are those that are properly observed and tested. Teachers also benefit from the use of assessments because it helps them create an appropriate curriculum for their students. Evaluating children at a young age can have a positive effect if a delay or disability is in fact found, and because it was caught early, the student has a better chance of exceeding their potential in school. Catching developmental delays or disabilities at a young age is the same as finding cancer at an early stage in the sense that the earlier the cancer is found; the chances of survival are greater. Assessment results are used to plan for instruction, evaluate instructional programs, and report student progress. These are all positive results of assessments. Without the results of assessments and test, how can educators determine what to teach their students? Evaluations, if planned and administered properly, can be more beneficial than harmful. Unfortunately, not all teachers evaluate children fairly or appropriately. So it is important for parents to stay involved in their children’s education in the event that the results of an evaluation do not match the potential of their child. Parents should know the norms and abnormalities of their child’s behavior. Therefore, it is always beneficial to the child for parents and teachers to communicate. This way if a child is acting up in class, and the teacher notifies the parent, the parent may confirm any fears right away by simply saying, â€Å"that isn’t like him† or â€Å"he’s just nervous†. Avoiding drastic measures and not jumping to conclusions is the proper way to evaluate a child fairly. What are the predicted long-term benefits to Early Childhood Assessments? Are assessments and student evaluations accurate? Should teachers be required to assess and evaluate students as much as they already do? These are just a few of the questions that plagued educators for years. Too much assessing has placed so much pressure on students and teachers, inevitably taking away a child’s desire to learn for the sake of learning. The purpose of assessments and evaluations is a great concept, but placing too much pressure and emphasis on the test results is tainting the original purpose of learning. References Bers, T. H. Mittler, M. L. (1994). New Directions for Community Colleges. Assessment Testing Myths and Realities: A Critical Review of Student Assessment Options, 69-83. Brink, M. (2002). Involving Parents in Early Childhood Assessment: Perspectives from an Early Intervention Instructor. Early Childhood Education Journal, 29(4), 251-7. Retrieved from Education Full Text database Early, D. M. , McKenna, M. , Slentz, K. L. (2008). A Guide to Assessment in Early Childhood; Infancy to Age Eight. Washington State: Washington State Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction. The National Academies of Sciences (2008). Early Childhood Assessment: Why, What, And How. Retrieved October 19, 2011 from http://www. bocyf. org/head_start_brief. pdf. Early Learning Standards Task Force and Kindergarten Assessment Work Group. (2005). Early Childhood Assessment For Children From Birth To Age 8 (Grade 3). Harrisburg, PA: Pennsylvania’s Departments of Education and Public Welfare. Snow, C. E. Van Hemel, S. B. (2008). Early Childhood Assessment: Why, What, And How. Washington, D. C. : The National Research Council Of The National Academies Wortham, S. (2012). Assessment in Early Childhood Education, (6th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Publication of Charlotte Bronte’s Shirley :: Essays Papeers

Publication of Charlotte Bronte’s Shirley Background on Charlotte Bronte Maria Brandwell Bronte gave birth to Charlotte, her third child out of six within the span of seven years, on April 12, 1816 in Bradford, Yorkshire. Charlotte began her schooling at the Clergy Daughter’s School on August 10, 1824, but due to harsh conditions at the school she returned after only one year. Upon returning home she was schooled by her aunt, and then attended Roe Head in 1831. Charlotte struggled finding an occupation that she enjoyed. She became a teacher at Roe Head, but she hated the way it was run and left shortly thereafter. She also tried to be a governess twice, but due to her shy nature and the fact that she missed her sisters so dearly, she returned home. Charlotte’s thirst for knowledge took her to Brussels with her sister Emily, where she learned French, German, and management skills. After Charlotte’s trip to Brussels, she had a streak of bad luck. In 1844 she attempted to open her own school, but failed. She then wrote a collection of poems with her sisters entitled Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton, but only sold two copies. She then decided to write her own novel, The Professor in 1846, but could not get it published. She attempted six different times, but no one would publish her book. Charlotte Bronte obtained her fame in 1874 when she published her first novel, Jane Eyre, which was an immediate success. Bronte did not want to use her real name, so at this time she called herself Currer Bell. Following Jane Eyre, Bronte wrote Shirley in 1848, but her second novel did not go over well with the public. In 1853, Bronte wrote Villette as a third novel, which was another success for her. Charlotte Bronte’s life began to take a turn for the better. She got married in 1854 to Arthur Bell Nicholls, who was her father’s curate. Unfortunately, she died on March 31, 1855, just a year after her marriage to Nicholls. She died from a digestive tract infection, and her unborn child died with her. It was said that she contracted this disease from her servant, Toby. Although Charlotte Bronte faced many setbacks throughout her life, she will forever remain an outstanding Victorian novelist because of her talented writing style.

Statement of Purpose for Cfd

Statement of Purpose â€Å"Physicists come and go but the problem of turbulence remains. † ———- A. Liebchaber Career plans and long-term goals†¦ The â€Å"teraflops† supercomputers will become common over the next decade and with the advent of a new era in the world of parallel programming, the long cherished dream of the scientific community to get a substantially deep insight into the hitherto uncanny world of turbulence will at last take a realistic shape.The desire to become a part of this revolution, to collectively tackle the challenge expressed in the comment on top, has motivated me to opt for a career in research in the field of Computational Fluid Dynamics. In the long-term, I want to take up an exacting position, either in the academia or the industry, where I can do independent research on fundamentally challenging and technically demanding problems with an immediate relevance to the everyday world. Bearing these long-term goals in mind, my immediate objective is to work towards an M.S. leading to Ph. D. , whose importance in laying a strong foundation for a successful career in research is paramount. What I want to contribute†¦ A thorough understanding of the basic nature of turbulence and the fundamental principles governing it is at the heart of numerous key issues facing the present day scientists and engineers. But our extremely limited knowledge of this classical bete noire becomes a severe handicap when we try to address those issues.With this in mind I am determined to carry out research in the field of Computational Fluid Dynamics, as it (CFD) will help us in remarkably improving our comprehension of turbulence science. Further, I also wish to work on the control of turbulence because I reckon that one may not be able to predict the direction of the wind but one can certainly control one’s sails. What I mean is that turbulence will always remain, just that we will have to use our understan ding of turbulence to develop innovative controls that will decrease or increase turbulence, as the requirement may be.While I will try to delve into turbulence, I also wish to apply the existing knowledge to control it. We just can’t afford to wait, as we are running out of fuel! What I have†¦ I believe that the fruitful past academic and research experiences I have had, the present grooming I am going through and a focused and determined approach towards future are the main ingredients of my recipe for success in my long-term goals. Consistently the overall topper at school, I derived a special kind of pleasure from the world of mathematics and nurtured it as a hobby and not merely as a part of academics.My love for mathematics won kudos when I topped the Regional Mathematical Olympiad (RMO) from my region in class 9th (RMO is normally written in 11th standard) and went on to get 12th rank at the Indian National Mathematical Olympiad (INMO) the same year, thus becoming the youngest Indian to get the INMO Award (INMO is just one level below the International Mathematical Olympiad, IMO). To add to my good academic performance, I have background in doing research work, whose invaluable experience should help me in my academic and research pursuits in the graduate school.At college my research interests were kindled when I got an opportunity to work on â€Å"Design of Disassembly† under Prof. M. K. Tiwari. Based on the efforts of the group a paper titled â€Å"Disassembly Sequence Generation: A Petri Net Based Heuristic Approach† has been communicated to the International Journal of Production Research (IJPR) (refer resume for details). The project acquainted me with the research-oriented approach and the success fostered in me a keen desire to further explore and excel on the research front.In the summers after the junior year I joined an industrial consultancy project â€Å"Cryo-treatment of cutting tools and its effects on wear resi stance† under the aegis of the Cryogenic Engineering Center, IIT Kharagpur. Working on the project exposed me to the complexities of a real life industrial project besides honing my computational and experimental skills. Currently I am working on my senior year project on â€Å"Design and Fabrication of Thermal Mass Flow Meters for laminar and turbulent flows† under the guidance of Prof.Sunil Kumar Sarangi (refer resume for details). During my work, the interactions with fellow researchers and senior investigators have not only helped me crystallize my fundamentals and further widen my horizons of understanding real life problems and then in molding them into suitable mathematical models for simulation and analysis using CFD (we are using a lot of CFD for modeling our system) but they have also effectively taught me the importance of collaborative work.On delving deeper into CFD I realized the tremendous importance and numerous applications it has, right from hypersonic aircrafts to the flow of blood in the ventricles. The immense computational and mathematical skills needed for CFD are indeed very challenging, and compatible with my abilities and so I have decided to specialize in CFD. Why Stanford†¦ Stanford University has one of the topmost ranked graduate programs in Mechanical Engineering in terms of experienced faculty and state-of-the-art infrastructure.Of particular interest to me is the high quality fundamental and pioneering research being done at the Center for Turbulence Research (CTR) and the Center for Integrated Turbulence Simulation (CITS) for significantly advancing the understanding of turbulence physics. My special interest in CFD, therefore, makes Stanford University a very coveted place for graduate studies. I am sure that a chance to work at these centers of excellence would give me an in-depth understanding of the challenges involved in turbulence physics and would also provide me with a golden opportunity to make origi nal contributions to my field of interest.I firmly believe that I am well equipped with the necessary technical skills and adequately prepared for the kind of dedication and resolve I will have to show in such demanding research environment as the Mechanical Engineering Department at Stanford offers to its graduate students. I strongly believe that graduate studies at Stanford would be an important step towards realizing my career and research goals. Varun Rai

Political Rhetoric Essay

John F. Kennedy and Barack Obama both make successful attempts at addressing the thoughts, concerns, and fears of the American people in their speeches made on the Democratic platform. John F. Kennedy addresses the nation in his 1960 â€Å"Inaugural Address,† while Obama addresses Bostonians at Democratic Convention in a speech entitled â€Å"The Audacity of Hope.† Both speakers demonstrate the skilful use of the rhetorical devices ethos, logos, and pathos for the purpose of garnering support for policies and ideas thought to be important in shaping the future of the country. The appeals made by these speakers demonstrate an ability to grab the interest of the audience and engage their attention through continued appeals to their conscience as humans and Americans (Callaway). Both Obama and Kennedy succeed in employing these ethical, logical, and pathetic modes of discourse in a tone that seeks to motivate and inspire their audiences to support them in their endeavors. As a young Catholic, John F. Kennedy’s road to the white house was filled with difficulties. He lost the ballot for the Democratic candidacy in 1956, and was forced to wait four more years before he could gain the chance to run for the American Presidency. His victory over Richard Nixon in November of 1960 was very hard won, with many persons apprehensive of his campaign strategy involving making the United States a new frontier. As the country had entered an economic slump and faced the threat of communism, his job was difficult on both domestic and foreign frontiers. Yet, his policies were dynamic, and he audibly heralded the dawn of a new generation (The White House).   John F. Kennedy gave his inaugural speech on January 20, 1961 as the 35th president of the United States and the youngest one to date (Carter 36). This inaugural speech is an exemplary one in the discipline of rhetoric for it skillfully engages its audience with tone at the beginning of the speech, as he downplays the Democratic victory and calls attention to the tradition of liberty that has been the heritage of the American people (Meyer 239). He speaks not of â€Å"victory of a party but a celebration of freedom—symbolizing an end as well as a beginning—signifying a renewal as well as change† (Kennedy). Using well chosen diction, he declares unselfishly an eagerness to protect the hard-won freedom and a determination to act morally on the national and international scene. He makes the claim that â€Å"civility is not a sign of weakness,† thereby underscoring the importance of ethical conduct and principled behavior (Kennedy). Kennedy’s assertion of the unity of his country is one that, according to his discourse, aims to extend to the entirety of the Americas. He clarifies the context of this civility by highlighting the courage that should attend all diplomatic endeavors. This was the period of the Bay of Pigs in which Russia’s apparent aim was to establish a presence in Cuba. Kennedy declares, â€Å"Let every other power know that this hemisphere intends to remain the master of its own house† (Kennedy).   This represents an ethical claim which finds it just and right for the stronger nations in the region to stand guard on behalf of the weaker ones. Kennedy makes this statement in order to show that the United States does and should consider it its duty to safeguard the interests of the countries of Earth’s Western Hemisphere.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   John F. Kennedy also appeals to the logical sense of the entire nation in a number of ways throughout his speech (Meyer 239). For example, he refers to the diplomacy he intends to undertake with other nations and announces that logic and discussion will attend such diplomatic meetings for the discussion of arms and hostile military activity. He displays the logic of his belief in his statement that nations in conflict do well to â€Å"formulate serious and precise proposals for the inspection and control of arms† (Kennedy). The systematic method in which these proposed ideas are to be dealt with underscores the logical construction of the manner in which such negotiations are to proceed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The speech by Kennedy also reflects a significant appeal to the sentiments of the nation (Meyer 139). The pathetic sympathies of his audience are aroused in his appeal to the traditions of liberty upon which the nation has been built. This patriotism elicits the pride and nationalism of the audience in the hope of identifying and exploiting the connection between the militarist actions of the past and his proposal for diplomatic action in the future. He appeals for their support in his famous lines, â€Å"Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country. Ask not what America will do for you but what together we can do for the freedom of man† (Kennedy). He makes this appeal, and in doing so requests the assistance of Americans’ sense of duty, which should be â€Å"unwilling to witness or permit† any form of encroachment upon the freedom hard won by those forefathers who died on the battlefields (Kennedy). Here he indicates that the Soviet efforts to establish threatening communist connections with Cuba would not be tolerated by the United States.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Kennedy also appeals to the trepidation felt by many Americans because of the stand-off developing between the United States and the Soviet Union. He refers to the state of atomic warfare in the world and speaks to the widespread fear that seemed to permeate the nation since the atomic bomb became a threat. He demonstrates his understanding of people’s concern with what he terms â€Å"the steady spread of the deadly atom† (Kennedy). He makes this appeal to the fear they feel in order to win their support for the military budget he subsequently proposes. Kennedy evokes the deep sense of endurance of the people in a â€Å"call to bear the burden of a long, twilight struggle, year in and year out† (Kennedy). This reflects the depth of the seriousness which he attributes to the threat of atomic aggression by hostile Communist states. Furthermore, the fact that this idea is given immediately following the allusion to â€Å"the graves of young Americans who answered the call to service around the globe† points to the gravity of the situation that faces the United States. Kennedy, therefore, stirs the feelings of his audience in order to garner their acceptance of the idea that the costly upkeep of the military – most likely leading to a greater tax burden – is of great necessity to the preservation of American life, liberty, and dignity. It will be seen that the effectiveness of Barack Obama’s speech utilizes techniques that are similar to those used by Kennedy. Barack Obama’s keynote speech to the National Democratic Convention was given on July 29, 2004 before he became a Senator (African-American 16). His goal in giving this speech is to promote the idea of living the American dream under the democratic candidate John Kerry. It is an example of a speech written to appeal to readers on several levels of the rhetorical scale. At this point in Obama’s life, he is a member of the Illinois state legislature and has recently announced his candidacy for the United States Senate. As a legislator, he has had exposure to the responsibility of making ethical decisions that result in the better regulation of the liberties promised in the constitution (Mack 99). He has also done work in very poor neighborhoods, and knows firsthand the problems faced by the people in those areas. The moral credibility of this speech is embodied in this central purpose: to promote and support â€Å"life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness† (Obama). He cites these qualities as being attributable to a â€Å"faith in simple dreams, an insistence on small miracles; that we can tuck in our children at night and know that they are fed and clothed and safe from harm; that we can say what we think, write what we think, without hearing a sudden knock on the door† (Obama). The knowledge Obama has gained from his diverse experience qualifies him to speak on the behalf of a candidate whose aims are drafted along the lines of enacting legislation that will improve people’s social condition. Obama also uses ethical reasoning in his charge to the American leaders to engage the governments of other nations in talks that will unite countries under the banner of their common problems rather than divide them based on conflict. He charges such leaders to encourage them to explore the areas of science that give wonder and hope, rather than those areas that terrify and promise harm. In this way, Obama appeals to the deep sense of moral character and integrity possessed by his hearers, and which he knows they hope for the person he introduces – John Kerry – to bring to his agenda as a democratic candidate for the presidency. Obama also utilizes the rhetorical device of pathos in his Democratic Convention speech. From the very beginning of his speech, his words appeal to the sentiments of his audience as he reminisces on the ancestral lines that brought him to where he now stands. He highlights how unlikely it is for him to have achieved the privilege of being in his current position, because of the lowliness of his father’s birth (Mack 101). His humility is evident in his use of the phrase â€Å"Thank you† eight times in the first two lines. He mentions the goat-herding vocation of his father, and yet contrasts this with the strength of the dreams his grandfather had for his goat-herding son. Obama appeals further to the audience’s sentiment by underlining the level of hard work to which his maternal grandfather committed himself, emphasizing his eagerness to enlist in the American military on the day that Pearl Harbor was bombed. He also does this in his reference to the variety of people who seek a land in which they call home. He says, â€Å"It’s the hope of slaves sitting around a fire singing freedom songs; the hope of immigrants setting out for distant shores; the hope of a young naval lieutenant bravely patrolling the Mekong Delta; the hope of a mill-worker’s son who dares to defy the odds; the hope of a skinny kid with a funny name who believes that America has a place for him, too† (Obama). In this way, he appeals to the patriotic nature of the audience and to highlight the right he and the diverse population have to claim this nation as their own. Barack Obama also makes a joint appeal both to the logos and pathos of the audience in his allusion to the job and health care situations in America. He says, â€Å"It is that fundamental belief: I am my brother’s keeper. I am my sister’s keeper that makes this country work,† and this represents his rousing of the conscience of the people toward a more communal type of social policy he advocates (Obama). He also demonstrates reasoning and in his treatment of specific problems, evoking a sense that justice fails where people who have worked diligently all their lives are now required to compete with teenagers for low-paying jobs. This form of appeal also comes to the fore where he mentions the hardworking father who is at a loss to figure out how he can pay a $4500 weekly bill for his sick son when he cannot afford insurance (Obama). The dismal circumstances evoke the sympathy of his hearers. He also combines logos and pathos in his mention of the health care situation. From a logical point of view, humanitarian considerations support the idea of universal health care and hard work should logically be rewarded with proper medical treatment when necessary. The tone of Obama’s address is one of patriotism and urgency. He speaks of the drive and heart of the American people underscores his point that the leader he endorses believes strongly in the ideas he has put forth. He says, â€Å"Now even as we speak, there are those who are preparing to divide us — the spin masters, the negative ad peddlers who embrace the politics of ‘anything goes.’ Well, I say to them tonight, there is not a liberal America and a conservative America — there is the United States of America† (Obama). His tone is also inspirational and motivational, and he highlights the ways in which the passion and ambition of the American people has the ability not just to make them succeed in the things to which they put their hands and minds, but also to unite them as one nation. Yet he also highlights the areas that need change, and encourages all the audience that together such goals can be achieved if the American initiative and ingenuity is employed. He exhorts his audience with his words and provocative tone to move forward by selecting the right candidate.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The speeches of John F. Kennedy and Barack Obama use rhetoric as a means of constructing logical and ethical arguments that appeal also to the sentiments of their audience. Both speakers show themselves to be exceptional orators and to possess skill in rousing the spirits of the nation in support of their political campaigns. They also show themselves to be united in their efforts to earn the backing of the American people for future domestic and foreign policies. Obama appeals to the deepest and most immediate concerns of the people, and by insisting on his interest in social welfare programs, shows himself worthy of their trust and sympathies. Kennedy’s inaugural speech highlights the endeavor of a newly elected Democratic president to air the qualities of an unproven leader as being propitious for the direction the country seeks to take. Kennedy makes himself one with the people by referring to the areas in which they share ethical beliefs and logical connections. Both speakers allude to recent and older historical periods in which wars were fought and Americans died. In so doing, the speakers are able to garner support for the policies that will preserve freedom and prosperity for many gave their lives. Works Cited â€Å"An African-American Law School Professor Aims to Become the Fifth Black U.S.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Senator.† The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education. Vol. 43 (Spring, 2004) pp 16 – 17.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   JSTOR. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=10773711%28200421%290%3A43%3C16   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   %3AAALSPA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-R. Callaway, Michael. â€Å"Logos, Ethos, and Pathos.† Arizona State University. 26 January 2008   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.public.asu.edu/~macalla/logosethospathos.html. Carter, Burnham Jr. â€Å"President Kennedy’s Inaugural Address.† College Composition and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Communication. Vol. 14 No. 1 (February, 1963) pp 36 – 40. JSTOR. 1 February 2008   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0010096X%28196302%2914%3A1%3C36%3APKIA%3   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   E2.0.CO%3B2-Q Kennedy, John Fitzgerald. â€Å"Inaugural Address.† 20 January 1061. American Rhetoric: Online    Speech Bank. 26 January 2008 http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ jfkinaugural.htm. Mack, Kenneth W. â€Å"Barack Obama before He Was a Rising Political Star† The Journal of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Blacks in Higher Education. No. 45, pp 99 – 104 (Autumn, 2004). JSTOR. 1 February   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2008 http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=1077-3711%28200423%290%3A45%3C98% 3ABOBHWA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N. Meyer, Sam. â€Å"The John F. Kennedy Inauguration Speech: Function and Importance of Its   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ‘Address System’.† Rhetoric Society Quarterly Vol. 12 No. 4 (Autumn, 1982), pp. 239-   Ã‚  Ã‚   250. JSTOR. 1 February 2008 http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0277-3945%28198223 %2912%3A4%3C239%3ATJFKIS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-M . Obama, Barack. â€Å"The Audacity of Hope.† 27 July 2004. American Rhetoric: Online Speech   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Bank. 26 January 2008 http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/convention2004/ barackobama2004dnc.htm. White House, The. â€Å"John Kennedy.† Past Presidents. Washington. Retrieved on February 18,    2008 from http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/jk35.html Annotated Bibliography â€Å"An African-American Law School Professor Aims to Become the Fifth Black U.S. Senator.†      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education. Vol. 43 (Spring, 2004) pp 16 – 17.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   JSTOR. . This article from The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education appeared in the Spring 2004 edition. It is an un-authored article that talks about Barack Obama’s rise through the political ranks all the way up to running for Senator. This article will help provide background information related to Obama’s early years in the State Legislature and later on in the Senate. Blakesley, David, and Jeffrey Hoogeveen. The Brief Thompson Handbook. Ohio: Thomson   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Wadsworth, 2008. This book is a handbook used for reference in all forms of writing. It has unique sections such as MLA documentation and how to research writing critically. It served a dual purpose in my paper as it was able to help me define several key terms as well as cite all appropriate sources properly. Callaway, Michael. â€Å"Logos, Ethos, and Pathos.† Arizona State University. 26 January 2008   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   . This site presents a helpful chart on the ethos, pathos, and logos, which clearly differentiates each of the three styles of presenting an argument.   It also presents clear definition as well as some examples from known articles written by recognized celebrities. It also gave insight into how to prepare a well-developed essay on rhetoric. Carter, Burnham Jr. â€Å"President Kennedy’s Inaugural Address.† College Composition and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Communication. Vol. 14 No. 1 (February, 1963) pp 36 – 40. JSTOR. 1 February   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2008 http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0010096X%28196302%2914%3A1%3   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   C36%3APKIA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Q This five page article by Burnham Carter Jr. was written two years after President John F. Kennedy gave his Inaugural Address. It praises Kennedy’s words and goes on to explore why it was such a great speech. This article is very well organized and uses outsides sources to get its point across. The ideas in this article will provide a basis upon which to build further arguments concerning the effectiveness of John F. Kennedy’s speech. Clarke, Thurston. â€Å"The Inauguration of John F. Kennedy and the Speech That Changed   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   America.† The San Francisco Chronicle. 24 October, 2004. 26 January 2008     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   . This article from the San Francisco Chronicle by Thurston Clarke recounts one of the most famous speeches ever given: The Inauguration of JFK. There was a myth that the speech could have been written by JFK’s assistant, Ted Sorensen. However, in the article Thurston disproves the rumor and demonstrates how JFK was the true author of his own remarkable words. The work helps give insight into the strategic mind of John F. Kennedy, and will apply to the logical aspects of the analytic paper.. Kennedy, John Fitzgerald. â€Å"Inaugural Address.† 20 January 1061. American Rhetoric: Online      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Speech Bank. 26 January 2008   . John F Kennedy’s Inaugural Address can be found in the Online Speech Bank of the American Rhetoric website. On this specific page it has the audio, video, and text of the speech that I will be analyzing. The speech will be examined on the following areas of rhetoric: pathos, logos and ethos, and will provide the primary material to be assessed. Mack, Kenneth W. â€Å"Barack Obama before He Was a Rising Political Star† The Journal of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Blacks in Higher Education. No. 45, pp 99 – 104 (Autumn, 2004). JSTOR. 1   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   February 2008 . Kenneth W. Mack wrote this four page article for The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education in the Fall of 2004. In the article, Mack addresses his relationship with Barack Obama on both a political and personal scale. He recounts anecdotes of himself and Obama along with other important political figures to shed light on hwo deserving Obama is of his acclaim. He also analyzes the Keynote Address that Obama gave at the 2004 Democratic National Convention. This article will provide deeper insight into the Obama’s character, and will inform the main ideas presented in the analysis of his speech. Meyer, Sam. â€Å"The John F. Kennedy Inauguration Speech: Function and Importance of Its   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã¢â‚¬ËœAddress System’.† Rhetoric Society Quarterly Vol. 12 No. 4 (Autumn, 1982),   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   pp. 239-250. JSTOR. 1 February 2008 . This twelve page article is an in-depth analysis on John F Kennedy’s Inaugural Speech. It explores all aspects of the speech with topics ranging from the audience to logos, pathos, and ethos. It breaks down different quotations and analyzes the content and not only the textual meaning but possible broader meanings. It will aid in the relation of the ideas presented in JFK’s speech to the context in which it was made. Obama, Barack. â€Å"The Audacity of Hope.†Ã‚   27 July 2004. American Rhetoric: Online Speech   Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Bank. 26 January 2008 . The American Rhetoric is a website that houses famous pieces of literature, both American and Foreign. This particular piece is a speech from the 2004 Democratic National Convention and is the Key Note Address. The speech is given by Barack Obama when he was still a member of the Illinois State Legislator. I will be examining the speech for the main elements of Rhetoric: logos, pathos and ethos. It will be used as the main source from which quotations and examples will be drawn in an analysis of the speech’s effectiveness. Ramage, John, John Bean, and June Johnson. Writing Arguments: A Rhetoric with Readings. 7th   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ed.   White Plains, NY: Longman, 2006. This is a book that revolves around the topic of arguments.   It defines argument, presents numerous argument readings over the pages, and then tackles on assisting readers into writing arguments. One of the arguments in the text is a speech by Former Attorney General John Ashcroft titled, â€Å"Testimony to the Senate Committee on the Judiciary.† Using pathos Ashcroft states that America must not be complacent and should be one-on-one in defending the nation against terrorist attacks. Another argument in the book is made by Patricia Williams in an article titled â€Å"To See or Not to See.† This article tackles the invalidity of the antiterrorism policies, especially when it comes to liberty and human rights of the minorities. The methods in which these state officials tackle these tough problems will give insight into the difficulties facing Kennedy at the time. Comparisons of his attitude with that of these contemporary leaders will help to indicate the extent to w hich his proposed policies were necessary. United Sates. Senate. Barack Obama: U.S. Senator for Illinois. 1 February 2008. This website is the homepage for Senator Barack Obama. It is a very detailed site with many subsidiary pages that include things from biographical information to his previous speeches on podcast. The homepage has an RSS feed that gives up to the minute latest news relating to the Senator. It also indicates the issues for which Obama argues and different committees with which he is associated. This source gives an idea of the Obama’s political interests and facilitates the comparison of his speech’s main points. It also gives insight into the areas in which Obama may have done (or found) research for his speech. White House, The. â€Å"John Kennedy.† Past Presidents. Washington. Retrieved on February 18,    2008 from http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/jk35.html This article is a biography of John F. Kennedy, detailing his birth, tour in Japan, road to the White House and subsequent assassination while in office. It also tells of other accomplishments, the Bay of Pigs campaign, and the overall mission that he had in store for the country. It is useful as a source of general background information concerning Kennedy.   

Toolkit for Conflict Management

Toolkit for Conflict Management Change is the process of improving the organizations processes and employees performance with the intention of increasing productivity. Change creates an impact on employees work processes behaviors and motivation.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Toolkit for Conflict Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Bradford and Burke (2005) suggest that it is the management’s duty to assess employee’s reactions, and introduce change techniques to help in the process. However, there are cases where conflicts occur as the employees undergo through the change process. The reasons may be due to fear of the unknown, fear of failure, and loss of power. Tools and techniques for effective change help in addressing conflicts at each stage of change. When mangers are planning for change, they are supposed to raise awareness of the need for change so that they can create a desire among the employees. The change managem ent team must come up with a plan to communicate to those employees affected by change, starting with supervisors and middle level managers because they will be able to convince other employees. After the informing employees about change, the management should plan on training. Training on new skills will give confidence to the employees. The training should be based on knowledge, skills and behaviors of the employees. It will help in minimizing conflicts because they will have confidence in applying their new skills. Response is also important after the employees have tried their new skills during implementation process because it will determine whether the employees have accepted the new process. Their opinion should be reviewed and the corrective action taken. Likewise, observation of how well the employees are performing is essential. Those who perform well should be complimented and sometimes rewarded to increase on employee’s acceptance to change. Furthermore, Evaluatio n of the change process is important in determining whether it is in line with the organizations objectives. Process Intervention Tools used in Change Management According to Balkin (2008), the process of change is subject to many conflicts as it goes through all the processes with the employees either adjusting to the new system or resisting it.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The management should use some tools to make sure that the new change of activities are accepted, and this will be so if the management holds regular meetings to communicate to the employees about the current status of activities. Also, with the use of suggestion boxes, the employees are able to write down their views and ideas on the adjustment during the process of change. The managers involved in the change process should write down the procedures required and distribute them among employ ees so that everybody gets ready for change, and incase of new changes, redistribution is important. Consequently, the managers should improve interpersonal communication through small groups guided by representatives so that the employees can communicate their expectations. Observation of how the change is taking effect and observing how the employees are performing is most important because it will determine whether the change has been successful. Furthermore, interviewing the users is also important because they will be able to tell the management on the complex processes. In every process of change, feedback from the employees is important because the management will identify the individuals who are positive about the change and those who are negative. Those with negativity are retrained until they get it right (Hersey, Blanchard, Johnson, 2008). Therefore, because an organizations objective is to have maximum profits, it is essential for the management to have a successful cha nge process with proper training and use of different tools to minimize conflicts that arise in the change process. References Balkin, D. B. (2008). Management: People, Performance, Change (3rd ed.). New York McGraw Hill. Bradford, D. L. Burke, W. W (2005), Reinventing Organization Development (eds). San Francisco: Pfeiffer.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Toolkit for Conflict Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Hersey, P., Blanchard, K., Johnson, D. (2008). Management of Organizational Behavior. Leading Human Resources (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Shirley Chisholm, First Black Woman in Congress

Shirley Chisholm, First Black Woman in Congress Shirley Chisholm  (born Shirley Anita St. Hill, November 30, 1924–January 1, 2005) was the first African-American woman ever elected to the U.S. Congress. She represented the 12th Congressional District of New York for seven terms (1968–1982) and quickly became known for her work on minority, womens, and peace issues. Fast Facts: Shirley Chisholm Known For: First African-American woman to serve in the U.S. Congress, from 1968–1982Born: November 30, 1924 in Bedford-Stuyvesant, Brooklyn, New YorkParents: Charles and Ruby Seale St. HillEducation: Brooklyn College (B.A., sociology, cum laude); Columbia University (M.A., elementary education)Died: January 1, 2005 in Ormond Beach, FloridaPublished Works: Unbought and Unbossed and The Good FightSpouse(s): Conrad O. Chisholm (1959–1977), Arthur Hardwicke, Jr. (1977–1986)Notable Quote: That I am a national figure because I was the first person in 192 years to be at once a congressman, black and a woman proves, I think, that our society is not yet either just or free. Early Life Shirley Chisholm was born in the Bedford-Stuyvesant neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York on November 30, 1924. She was the eldest of four daughters of her immigrant parents, Charles St. Hill, a factory worker from British Guiana, and Ruby Seale St. Hill, a seamstress from Barbados. In 1928, because of financial hardship, Shirley and two of her sisters were sent to Barbados to be raised by her grandmother, where they were educated in the islands British-style school system. They returned to New York in 1934, even though the financial situation had not been resolved. Shirley attended Brooklyn College for a degree in sociology, where she won prizes in debating but found she was barred from the social club, as all blacks were, so she organized a rival club. She graduated with honors in 1946 and found work at two daycare centers in New York. She became an authority on early education and child welfare, and an educational consultant for Brooklyns Bureau of Child Welfare. At the same time, she worked as a volunteer with the local political leagues and the League of Women Voters. Deeper Involvement in Politics In 1949, Shirley married Conrad O. Chisholm, a private investigator and graduate student from Jamaica. Together they became increasingly involved in New York municipal political issues, establishing a number of local organizations to bring blacks and Hispanics into politics. Shirley Chisholm returned to school and obtained a masters degree in elementary education from Columbia University in 1956 and became involved in grassroots community organizing and the Democratic Party, helping form the Unity Democratic Club in 1960. Her community base helped make possible a win when she ran for the New York State Assembly in 1964. Congress In 1968, Shirley Chisholm ran for Congress from Brooklyn, winning that seat while running against James Farmer, an African-American veteran of the 1960s Freedom Rides in the south and the former national chairman of the Congress of Racial Equality. With her win, she became the first black woman elected to Congress. Her first congressional battle- she fought many- was with the chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee, Wilbur Mills, who was responsible for assigning committee appointments. Chisholm was from the urban 12th district in New York; Mills assigned her to the agricultural committee. Apparently, she said, all they know here in Washington about Brooklyn is that a tree grew there.  The speaker of the House told her to be a good soldier and accept the assignment, but she persisted and eventually Mills assigned her to the Education and Labor Committees. She hired only women for her staff and was known for taking positions against the Vietnam War, for minority and womens issues, and for challenging the Congressional seniority system. She was outspoken and uninterested in conforming: in 1971, Chisholm was a founding member of the National Womens Political Caucus and in 1972, she visited the voluble segregationist Alabama governor George Wallace in the hospital when he was recovering from an assassination attempt. He was astonished to see her and she was criticized for visiting him, but the act opened doors. In 1974, Wallace provided his support for her bill to extend federal minimum wage provisions to domestic workers. Running for President and Leaving Congress Chisholm ran for the Democratic nomination for president in 1972. She knew she could not win the nomination, which eventually went to George McGovern, but she nevertheless wanted to raise issues she felt were important. She was the first black person and the first black woman to run for president on a major party ticket and was the first woman to win delegates for a presidential nomination by a major party. In 1977, she divorced her first husband and married businessman Arthur Hardwicke, Jr. Chisholm served in Congress for seven terms. She retired in 1982 because, as she put it, moderate and liberal lawmakers were running for cover from the new right. She also wanted to take care of her husband, who had been injured in an automobile accident; he died in 1986. In 1984, she helped form the National Political Congress of Black Women (NPCBW). From 1983 to 1987, she taught politics and womens studies as the Purington Professor at Mount Holyoke College and spoke widely. She moved to Florida in 1991 and briefly served as the ambassador to Jamaica during President Bill Clintons first term. Death and Legacy Shirley Chisholm died at her home in Ormond Beach, Florida on January 1, 2005, after suffering a series of strokes. Chisholms legacy of grit and persistence is apparent in all of her writings, speeches, and actions in and out of government. She was involved in the founding or administration or strong support of numerous organizations, including the National Organization of Women, the League of Women Voters, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), the Americans for Democratic Action (ADA), and the National Womens Political Caucus. She said in 2004, I want history to remember me not just as the first black woman to be elected to Congress, not as the first black woman to have made a bid for the presidency of the United States, but as a black woman who lived in the 20th century and dared to be herself. Sources Barron, James. Shirley Chisholm, Unbossed pioneer in Congress, Is Dead at 80. The New York Times, 3 January 2005.Chisholm, Shirley. The Good Fight. New York: Harper Row, 1973. Print.Unbought and Unbossed. Washington, DC: Take Root Media, 1970 (2009).Jackson, Harold. Shirley Chisholm: The First Black Woman Elected to Congress, She Was an Outspoken Advocate against Discrimination. The Guardian, 3 January 2005.Thurber, Jon. Shirley Chisholm, 80; Ran for President, Served 13 Years in Congress. Los Angeles Times, 4 January 2005.

Print and TV Media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Print and TV Media - Essay Example Television, or TV, literally means the unit that is used to receive broadcast signals from a network, and, in this case, refers to the actual use of TV-a means to get information on a regular basis. Shows on TV also vary in frequency, usually within minutes, hours, days, and weeks. Take a regular newspaper, roll it, tuck it under your arm or toss it in your bag, and you can read it whenever you've got the time-unless you want to get the information right here, right now. Such is the essence of the newspaper; news and information delivered through the convenience of compiles sheets of paper that one can carry around, as well as the corresponding affordability. On top of that, the availability of space in its environment allows print journalists to write lengthy news and feature articles, giving the reader access to more information that can be referred to anytime. The downside of it is the amount of time spent producing a single issue-a process that produces hundreds and thousands of copies-and how it measures against other sources. In this day and age, where everything can be accessed in one click, the speed afforded by print media is no longer up to par with the rest. This is particularly true for news-based publications, because this obstacle relegates them, by default, to last place in terms of relevance. On the other hand, if relevance is the is... A news anchor can be on air in seconds, and can announce breaking news even from remote locations via satellite right where and when it happens. Best of all, TV is visual-all the better to narrate in 30 seconds what a newspaper story will do with only words to rely on. Most people are inclined to TV than print, precisely because of this attribute. But TV can only be TV, at least for the mass market, if one has an actual TV. Compared to the print production process, the broadcasting system is far more complicated, requires more people to run it, and necessitates equipment that can never be called cheap. Plus, unlike newspapers, one can never read back what has been reported-unless a replay is run. III. Content is King, Distribution is Queen What a reader or viewer gets from both TV and print is almost identical. The reason for this lies in the preferences of its targets-the regular reader and the frequent viewer-whose loyalty the two media are always after. This resulted in the creation, development, and innovation of the material each features, known as content. News articles and breaking news. Coming from the same source, using the same methodology, but using different executions, these two form-specific materials naturally provides for the same need-that of knowing what is happening of significance at the moment. Magazines and variety shows. These two forms are actually several parts joined together to produce a printed material, or an hour-long show. They aim to cover certain interests, and, with the objective of making things fresh and upbeat, rely on the novelty of each section or segment. Dear Abby letters and drama programs. Many people are fond of emotional revelations,

Databases Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Databases - Essay Example Stephens (2010) defines a database simply as a tool that stores data. Stephens further notes that the database gives one the opportunity to create, read, delete and update information somehow. In this sense, Stephens include filing cabinets, the brain and notebooks as databases. With regard to computer science and information technology, a database is generally defined as an organized collection of information in digital form such that a computer program can fast chose the data pieces that are desired (Connolly and Begg (2002). A database may be made for one or more purposes and may be though of as an electronic filing system. Traditionally, databases may be organized by files, records and fields. A file in this respect is a set of records, a field represents one piece of information while a record represents a complete set of fields Types of Databases Different organizations and experts categorize databases differently. Some experts categorize database types as analytic databases an d operational databases. Based on functionality, databases may be categorized as hierarchical and network. According to The One Stop Website Shop (2012), two main types of databases however exist; relational and flat-file. The flat file type is generally suited to handling small amounts of information that need to should be readable to humans and editable by hand. Basically, the flat-file database consists of a set of strings stored in a single or more files. The file(s) can be parsed to retrieve the data that are stored therein as noted by Date (2003). The flat-file is favourable when the data to be stored is simple, and in the form of data values and lists. However, this type of database can be complicated if the replication of more complex data structures is involved according to The One Stop Website Shop (2012). One other disadvantage with these types of database lies in the fact that they are easy to corrupt. The relational databases have more logical structures compared to the ir flat-file counterpart in view of the way that information is stored. Relational databases in existence today include Oracle, SQL Server and MySQL. In the relational database, a table is used to represent actual objects, and every field acts as an attribute. As an example, a table that contains information about books could contain columns for the author, tile and ISBN. These arch details which describe the books contained in the table. Yet again, the table contains rows each of which represents anew book. The relation evident in relational databases exist in the reality that various tables can be linked to one another. The relations can be extremely complex and difficult to replicate in the flat-file type of database. In spite of its complexity, the relational database is advantageous in the sense that duplication of data is avoided if the database is properly designed. Databases Management Systems In order to access information contained in a database, one needs a database manag ement system (DBMS). A database management system in this respect is a set of programs that enables one to enter, select and organize data contained in the database. Database management system may also be defined as a department that controls, structures and maintains a database in use (Date 2003). The DBMS permits access to one and the same database by various user application programs. Examples of DBMS include Basex, Oracle and Sedna, just to mention a few. Use and Roles